Technology

Technology is,by definition, the practical application of knowledge.It is the systematic treatment of art and science.Our new science is circular in its motivation.The proclivity only grows more definite as it kindles consecutively greater aspirations.Perhaps it is a desire,whether technical or ethical, to leave something here that is greater than before.Now the world is thriving,dominated by computers and electronic intelligence that will leave a path for our heir's advancement into the unknown in search of broader horizons that even we dreamed of.The desires to assist the next generation with success and in turn, assist them in discovering consequential uses of their own art and science.

Advances in technology range from cell phones and laptops to great macro computers used in the most detrimental and delicate of military operations.While these technological advances are speeding along the evolution of man's industrial greatness,some people believe that they are greatly impeding the fostering of emotional and psychological integrity among the human race.Perhaps we lose touch from behind screens and bolt irresponsibly through moral challenges at the speed of light with faceless services such as E-mail and the Internet.Jobs once performed by muscle and sinew, are now performed by streamlined computers produced by computers produced by computers.Through the vital exterior of metal and computer chips, the United States stands more for innovation and simplification than ever before, breaking new ground in the accomplishments of mankind.Economic growth caused by new and profound technology has sparked mass productivity and international competitiveness.Bringing with it morally demanding questions, which possibly bury the clever, however acquiescent, human being in their own intelligence.

This fear of technology overtaking its creators has been exploited in movies and television, making them as real as possible to the person who has lost their job to the next wonder of modern machinery.While efficiency is key, it is sometimes mislabeled as a problem.A problem that eradicates the small "mom and pop" businesses that this country is built upon.But, while fashioned upon the patriotic characteristics of the hard work of our predecessors, the aggressive expansion of our country's commerce is one of our greatest achievements yet .We've not forgotten the values that made us great.America is now a nation respected as a computer driven industry as well as one that strives to base its business on legitimate and ethical practices.

Despite the lack of physical contact, new ideas revolutionize day to day living, proving that we are a country of entrepreneurs, new age "mom and pop" businesses ourselves.With the availability of information increasing every day, our knowledge has expanded eons above what our parents thought the future would hold.We have access to facts and opinions on almost every subject known to man.The definition of the so-called "average person" has expanded to include present day technology.With information provided from Internet, we can recreate ancient crimes, participate in a worldwide exploration, and read about a new species of mammals discovered yesterday,Few of us can say we lack Internet services,cell phones, and an enduring, if not ethnocentric, interest in the quest for the greatest accomplishment, technology that will lead us to a greater understanding about the planet we live on and our place in this world.The remaining question becomes, "Do I fear less because I know more?" Or "Do I fear more because I know more?"

Through our modern day miracles of science we are able to appreciate that which is truly an incredible era of advanced erudition and self-sufficiency.Because of the advantages of modern day technology, we are allowed the unique benefit of looking back on what was and comparing it with what is and what could be.Technology is no longer seen as a barrier, but as as breakthrough.Bringing fresh insight and offering better jobs to those who are willing to take step towards the future.

Viruses

Viruses are so small that they cannot be seen even with the highest magnification of the microscope using visible light.They are recognizable only by their biological behavior,such as, by th3e disease they cause.Their exact nature was a mystery for long.They were variously regarded as invisible form of bacteria,protozoa,enzymes,toxins or as unusual products of metabolism of the cells in which they were found.

An America biochemist,Stanley in 1935,however isolated by chemical means from the diseased tobacco leaves a material which appeared to be a protein of high molecular weight.He studied this material in detail, and found that it possessed all the properties of a tobacco mosaic virus,which has already be discovered.

There are a number of direct,indirect and circumstantial,evidences to show that the material itself is the virus.Stanley,on the basis of the chemical properties,identified the material as autocatalytic proteins which can multiply within the living cell only.Bawden purified the tobacco mosaic virus, and found it to be a crystalline nucleo-protein of very high molecular weight,retaining its infectivity even when diluted to a concentration of 1/1,000,000.

This virus when examined with the electron microscope using X-rays,is found to be in the form of bundles of rod-like protein.Such nucleo protein cannot be obtained from healthy plants and is the virus itself.In 1938 the study of potato virus confirmed this.Since then,proteins of high molecular weight possessing all the properties of the respective viruses have been isolated and studied.

Most of the viruses are crystalline and rod-like,but different in size.Tobacco mosaic virus is rod-like in shape,280 mmicro in length and 18mmicro in breadth.'Bushty stunt' virus of tomato is 274 mmicro in diameter and its molecular weight is 8,800,000-12,800,000.Stanley studied the nucleo proteins of the 'ring-spot' virus of tobacco.The virus is rounded with 19mmicro diameter and 3,400,000 molecular weight.Tobacco "necrosis' virus is smallest of all the plant viruses known so far.It is rounded with 13-20 mmicro diameter.

Before 1935 they were believed to be living on the basis of few following properties:

1. That they can live only in a living cell.
2. They can infect healthy plants just like bacteria and fungi.
3. They multiply in number and grow in size,as the living organisms reproduce and grow.
4. They have physiologic specialization in relation to the insect vectors and the plants.
5. They respond to stimuli,such as acids,alkalies,light and temperature.

The supporters of the non-living nature viruses based their views on the following few properties:

1. They are too small to be observed under visible light.
2. They retain infectivity even in very low concentrations.
3. They can be crystallized like a chemical substance.
4. They can be sedimented like proteins.
5. They can be precipitated by a number of chemical substances.
6. They retain the power of infection even after 31 years in non-living tobacco leaves.

Some smokers did not agree with any of the above extreme views and adopted a middle course.They regarded viruses,representing a stage in between living and non-living with the acquired property of multiplication.

At present most of the virologists have agreed that viruses are nucleo-proteins of high molecular weight and have the power of multiplication.

Gold

Gold was discovered around 3000 BC to 1200 BC.Gold probably was found on the ground and used by prehistoric man as a tool.Highly Sophisticated gold art objects and jewelry discovered by archaeologists in the Royal Tombs at Ur,in what is now Southern Iraq,date back to around 3000 BC.Similarly,goldsmiths of the Chavin civilization in Peru were making ornaments by hammering and embossing gold by 1200 BC.Where and abundance in nature:Since gold is both durable and carefully guarded,most of the gold that has been taken from the Earth still exists.Much of it has been buried again in underground vaults,where it is held in government monetary reserves.In 1990 the bullion reserves of the free world were estimated to total some 43000 tons.Of this,the United States held 11 per cent.Gold reserves of South Africa were estimated at some 20000 tons.

Despite the prevalence of anti hoarding laws,another 50,000 tons were believed to be privately held.People are willing to take enormous risks and short-term financial losses to hoard gold against the possibility of fiscal inflation.The rest of the world's accumulated gold was held in official stocks by central banks or was industrially employed or lost.Today gold may be bought and sold on many markets.The largest is in London,England.Others exist in several nations of continental Europe,in the Middle East, and in Asia.Gold is usually alloyed in jewelry to give it more strength, and the word carat describes the amount of gold present (24 carats is pure gold). It is estimated that all the gold in the world,so far refined, could be placed in a single cube 60 ft. on a side.It is metallic,with a yellow color when in a mass,but when finely divided it may be black,ruby, or purple.It is the most malleable and ductile metal;1 ounce (28 g) of gold can be beaten out to 300 square feet.It is a soft metal and is usually alloyed to give it more strength.

Gold is superior electrical conductivity,it's malleability and resistance to corrosion have made it vital to the manufacture of components used throughout a wide range of electronic products and equipment including computers,telephones and home appliances.

Gold has extraordinary high reflective powers that are relied upon in the shielding that protects spacecrafts and satellites from solar radiation and in industrial and medical lasers that use gold-coated reflectors to focus light energy.And because gold is biologically inactive,it has become a vital tool for medical research and is even used in the direct treatment of arthritis and other intractable diseases.

Global Warming

Global warming is a matter of great concern that is unfortunately quite often overlooked in light of other problems that seems to be more immediately demanding.However,for all the attention that this issue does not draw,that is how dire it is growing to be.There are many problems that are causing global warming, and if they are not rectified, or at least prevented from here on out there are going to be some severe ramifications in the near future.

Green house gases,holes in ozone layer and the decay of the atmosphere are just a few of the problems that need to be at the very least understood by the general populace.

Green house gases are chemical compounds that are found in the atmosphere.Because of there chemical make up,they allow energy from the sun to enter the atmosphere freely."When sunlight strikes the Earth's surface,some of it is reflected back towards space as infrared radiation.Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in the atmosphere.Over time,the amount of energy sent from the sun to the Earth's surface should be about the same as the amount of energy radiated back into space,leaving the temperature of the Earth's surface roughly constant."So this heat that is formed in these gases merely sits there and radiates more heat than it should.

Another great concern to everyone on earth should be the hole in the ozone that is above Antarctica.Last recorded in September of 2000,the hole was 28.3 million square kilometers.Such a hole in the ozone allow rays from the sun to enter undiluted into our atmosphere with their unhampered intensity.Since this hole is present in one of the coldest parts of the world,where there is so much ice,the potential for melting is extremely dangerous.Already,our world's core temperature has risen 1 degree.It is predicted that before the turn of the century,the core temperature will rise another to 3 to 9 degrees.Such a great change would cause water levels to rise,coastal cities would start to flood,people who lived on the edge the beaches and coasts would have to move or lose everything they possessed to floods.This drastic change in temperature also effects the weather patterns.Heat waves will last longer and be more severe.Drought and dried out crops will cause strife for our economy.More over that is only one way in which our economy will be damaged.

This is just a glancing off the tip of the iceberg that is the issue of global warming.There are so many troublesome factors that are largely our own faults that are not being rectified as of this time.This is tragic shame, and if not we ourselves,then our children after us will have to suffer for our ecological apathies,ignorance and mistakes.

Civil Engineering

Historically,Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering and dates back at least 5000 years to the profession of "master builder" involving pyramids,temples and irrigation projects.Engineering has changed greatly since those days but the fundamental principles have stayed the same.Engineers solve people problems with applied science and innovation.Today's problems are more complex and the needs of current and future societies have created challenges for engineering unparalleled in our history.The use of electronic data collection methods and the application of computers have revolutionized the practice of Civil Engineering.To interpret and satisfy these needs,Civil Engineers currently direct the spending of more than one tenth of Canada's gross national product,more than any other professional group.The Civil Engineer must deal with the human impact of engineering.Social,moral and legal issues concern us to a far greater degree than ever before.

Civil Engineering has become an extremely diverse field with many areas of application.A summary of the major fields follow:

Structural Engineering

Structural Engineering deals with the design and construction of all types of structures including buildings and bridges.Emphasis is placed on mechanics and the behavior of materials.

Infrastructure Management and Construction

Infrastructure Management and Construction deals with project management,construction materials,construction engineering and building engineering.

Water and Waste Management Engineering

Water and Waste Management Engineering addresses water and waste water treatment,surface and ground water pollution and control,solid and hazardous waste management,contaminant transport and behavior in the environment.Support areas including aquatic chemistry,computer modeling,stimulation and laboratory experimentation as examples are also stressed.

Transportation Engineering

Transportation Engineering deals with the planning,design construction,traffic operation and evaluation of streets,highways ,airports, and transit systems.

Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering covers the engineering properties of soils,the fundamentals of soil mechanics, and the application of geotechnical data and fundamentals to the design of foundation elements,earth-retaining structures,excavations,earth embankments and highway pavements.

Engineering Mechanics

Engineering Mechanics deals with the rigorous study of mechanics,applied mathematics and related fields.This leads to an understanding of advanced analysis and leads to study in structural engineering,hydraulics,mechanics of solids and fluids,or properties of materials.

Experimental Mechanics

Experimental Mechanics involves the experimental investigations of the static and dynamic response of structures and machines, and in the development of improved techniques to obtained analyze experimental data.

Water Resources Engineering

Water Resources Engineering covers the planning,management,design and operation of water supply and distribution systems,flood control and flood hazard mapping,hydrologic and hydraulic aspects of environmental issues, and application of remotely-sensed data to hydrologic and environmental problems.

Materials

Materials study involves structural engineering,mechanics or properties of materials and relates to materials science.
In addition,Civil Engineers often move outside traditional Civil Engineering fields.This translates into fields such as:

• Public Administration
• Planning
• Management Science
• Business Administration
• Bioengineering
• Environmental Health

The Civil Engineer,regardless of she or he is a generalist or a specialist,draw heavily upon the work of the physical and social sciences,other professions and other branches of engineering.Moreover,as engineers have become involved in many interdisciplinary activities over the last decade,the job demarcation between boundaries of engineering has become much less restrictive.Certainly one of the advantages of completing a Civil Engineering program is that it allows professional registration while simultaneously providing a basis for further study and professional development in a large variety of specialized fields.

Chemistry of Biology

There are many parts to every living thing.These basic parts have specialized jobs,which give shape and function of everything in the universe.The basic building block for all mas is the atom.There are many different parts to the atom.The electron is a negatively charged particle that revolves around the nucleus in electron shells.The electron is one of the smallest particles that make the atom.The counter part to the electron is proton.This is the large positive charged particle.These different atoms make up elements.An element is a collection of similar atoms.Examples of elements are oxygen,hydrogen and carbon.These elements can be used to build large materials can molecules.A molecule is a collection of similar or different elements.Different prefixes and suffixes are used to describe the shape,composition, and number of particles.An example of this is trivalent chromium.This named is used to describe the number of lost electrons.Hexavalent chromium has a charge plus six or it has lost six electrons.Chromium picolinate is the natural occurring form of chromium.It has not lost or gained a charge, or it is a neutral element.

Chromium is a very specific type of element.It can be very safe and helpful,but in some forms the element can be radioactive and cause health problems in living things.In the movie Erin Bockovich,two types of hexavalent chromium and chromium picolinate.Chromium picolinate is a helpful and necessary element.It is found in many dietary suplements due to its role in the absorption of glucose in the cells.In many cases of type II or adult on-set diabetes,a regular supplement of chromium can control the disease.This natural occurring mineral is providing to be a very important piece to the fight against diabetes.

The second type of chromium occurs in very low levels naturally in the environment,but due to manufacturing,both land and water supplies can be contaminated with extremely high levels of the radioactive material.This can lead to many health problems in humans.These health problems can include cancer,natural abortions,birth defects and mutations."Hexavalent chromium has been shown to be carcinogenic in humans,especially when inhaled as a dust".Exposure to this element can and has been very deadly.

Aquifers and other sources of groundwater are being polluted with hexavalent chromium everyday.Aquifers are large subterranean lakes.These aquifers are being both depleted for drinking water,but it is also being contaminated from pollutants from rain water,on the soil, and dumped into lakes and rivers.Then it drains into the groundwater.These pollutants slowly make there way towards the aquifers and out our facets.One a polluted aquifers is found in Los Angles,"Despite a new study confirming that higher-than-recommended levels of chromium 6 are present in tap water at 110 LA government facilities".This is just on example of the numerous polluted aquifers throughout the US.Not only can hexavalent chromium be found in the water,it is also present in the soil.This is one of the ways the groundwater is polluted.The various types of soil hold pollutants differently.The best for holding contaminates is clay.The clay is very fine,easily compacted, and porous.This means that it holds water well.When a pollutant comes into contact with the soil,especially water soluble pollutants,the clay holds the water in contaminating the topsoil.

Erin Brockovich opened many eyes when it addressed the problems of pollution.One example of a pollutant is chromium.In its natural state,it is necessary and helpful mineral,but when it is in the form of hexavalent chromium it is deadly.For the sake of the future generations and the environment,we need to clean up the soil and water and stop the constant polluting.

Quantum vs. Classical Mechanics

Classical and quantum mechanics are the two main fields of mechanics in physics.Classical mechanics came a few hundred years before Quantum mechanics.Subsequently it is less accurate and less reliable then the more recent mechanic field of quantum mechanics.Despite being outdated,Classical mechanics can still be used for many everyday problems with bigger and slower moving objects.However,when dealing with extremely fast moving or small subatomic particles a Classical approach will not produce sufficiently accurate results as was the case around the 19th century.

Difficulties with the Classical mechanics theory came right around the 19th century.First was the Ultraviolet Catastrophe.Experimental data when testing black body radiation was found to be inconsistent with Classical mechanics.The data showed that as the wavelength of the incoming radiation approaches zero,the amount of energy being radiated also approaches zero,whereas Classical mechanics says the emitted energy is infinite.The second difficulty with the theory was its inability to correctly describe the photoelectric effect.The photoelectric effect says that photons from a surface are released when light hits it.Classical mechanics says that electrons will be emitted from a metal by light waves with any frequency as long as the intensity of the light is strong enough, and even it is weak over a long enough period of time electrons will eventually be emitted.The theory was proved incorrect after experiments showed that light under certain frequencies did not produce the photoelectric effect on the metal,which meant that the emitting of electrons is related not to intensity but the waves frequency.A new string of mechanics,Quantum mechanics,was created in order to resolve the incompatibilities of Classical mechanics.A main difference between the two fields of mechanics is the make up of the atom.In Quantum mechanics electrons in an atom are outside of the nucleus in specific orbitals around the nucleus that they can jump from one to another only when a specific energy level is reached,and can never be in-between the specific orbitals.Also Quantum mechanics says that a photon is released only when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level,or a higher energy orbital to a lower energy orbital.Classical mechanics,contradicting this,says that an atom is constantly emitting radiation.Quantum mechanics describes light as both as a wave and a particle,depending on the situation.Light exhibits interference and diffraction,which are both characteristics associated to waves.However,there is also evidence that supports the particle theory of light that states electromagnetic waves consist of photons and bursts that have momentum and energy.

The Uncertainty Principle is also described by Quantum mechanics.It says,contrary to Classical mechanics belief that precision is limited only by the accuracy of man made instruments;it is impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a particle's position and momentum with infinite accuracy.This essentially is saying that the more we know about one,momentum or position,the less we will know about the other.

For most problems Classical mechanics is a more practical method to use.Despite not being as accurate as Quantum mechanics,the math is much simpler and the inaccuracies are generally small enough not to be a factor.Quantum mechanics is only necessary when dealing with extremely fast moving particles or small particles.

Weaponizing Space

There is an ongoing debate on the issue of weaponizing space in order to protect our national space assets and achieve strategic objectives.This is an issue because of the increase of more space faring nations trying to exploit the benefits of space and other national also trying to develop capabilities to disrupt other using from it.This essay will outline the current international laws and policies,our national policies in regard to space,current issues that catalyzed this debate,the benefits and disadvantage of weaponizing space.

Space is also governed by rules and laws much like we do on land and sea."Treaty on Principles Governming the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies," or commonly referred to as the Outer Space Treaty was signed in 1966 by many nations,including the United States, and is the basis for most international space laws and policies.Some key points to take away from this treaty in relation to the space weapons debater are the following:"(1)outer space is open to all nations to explore and use;(2)nations cannot own any portion of outer space;(3)outer space will be used for peaceful purposes;(4)nations cannot place,put in orbit,or station any weapon of mass destruction in any form in outer space."(UNOOSA)These principles and laws also mostly reflected in our nation's space policy, and our national security space strategy.

Our National Space Policy(NSP) is derived from the President's vision and directives.NSP incorporates the trems outlined in the Outer Space Treaty,as well as two caveats: (1)to deter,defend our nation's space assets, and "if deterrence fails,defeat efforts to attack them";(2)"to work with international partners to continue to promote peaceful use of space."Also ,NSP shapes the National Security Space Strategy(NSSS),which the Department of Defense uses of direct the way the military develop and utilize space capabilities.

NSSS states a few current trends in space as being "congested and contested",which is shaping our space strategic environment as well as fueling debates for space weapons."Congested" trend refers to the current "60 nations and government consortia that own and operate satellites and the expectation to have 9000 satellite communication transponders in orbit by 2015."There are over "22000 man-made objects,of which,1100 are active satellites," and the rest are orbital debris from 50+ years of space exploitation."Contested" trend refers to how certain nations, including us,are aiming to develop counter space capabilities that may "deny,degrade,deceive,disrupt,or destroy space assets or its supporting infrastructure.For example,in January 2007,China tested their anti-satellite capability by launching a ballistic missile as a "kinetic kill vehicle" and destroying one of their weather satellite.This test added more than 3000 pieces of orbital debris and proved a grim fact that other nations are developing counter space capabilities.

Weaponizing space has always been an ongoing debate since the start of the space race.International space policies and laws have and continue to allow all nations to use and explore space freely and peacefully.Even our own national policies adhere to these international laws to promote peacefully use of space as long as we maintain our national objectives.However,the current political and military environment brings about arguments which support for or against the idea of space weaponization.WE need to conduct a thorough critical analysis of all sides of this debate and choose the best balanced approach.

The Hydrogen Secret

The world is developing at a faster rate than ever before.As a result natural resources continue to be exhausted worldwide.Oil,once an abundant resources in the earth,is depleting at an ever growing rate.Oil costs continue to rise as the world depends on it more and more.Governments are investing billions of dollar every year into alternate energy research with hydrogen as the front runner.This is free money companies are receiving to research and develop hydrogen-powered vehicles.It's no wonder why people are lured into the hydrogen revolution.Each type of alternate energy comes with its own pros and cons.Like any product,marketers will only mention the pros of the product they are selling and the cons of their competitors.In the end whoever has the most money,wins.Hydrogen powered vehicles have received the most attention in the last year.Unfortunately the hydrogen revolution is not the savior that it is hyped up to be.The world cannot continue to rely on oil for its source of energy;an alternate form is needed but any more time or money invested into hydrogen as that alternate source may prove to be a big waste.In nature hydrogen is always found combined with other elements,which means it has to be manually made by passing an electric current through water to form hydrogen and oxygen.There is a tremendous amount of energy involved in splitting the molecules to free the hydrogen from water is through the use of oil and coal.Oil and coal are the two main resources the world is trying to cut back on.The main purpose of using hydrogen is lost when considering the actual manufacturing process of hydrogen contributes a significant amount of carbon dioxide.When the big coal and oil companies start investing their profits in hydrogen,something has gone awry.Each company sees its future limited and wants to ensure their survival.Since they have the most money they will be the main producer of hydrogen.The hydrogen economy will benefit the mining and oil industry at the cost of the clean-energy dream.

Hydrogen will prove to be a difficult energy to sell in the short term.Even though vehicles are still in the development stages,the current hydrogen prototype costs are in the million dollar range.Hydrogen is the smallest element in the universe;to get enough useful energy to power the vehicle,hydrogen has to be compressed to am extremely high pressure.Storing a gas at pressure this high requires additional safety measures.The tank has to be strong enough to store high pressure in the first place;in addition,it has to be able to survive in the event of a vehicle accident.The Hindenburg disaster is a great example of what can happen when hydrogen ignites.Vehicles are not the only major cost associated with developing a new fuel.New hydrogen fueling stations will need to be built or retrofitted into existing gas stations.The cost of building these new stations will be at a expense of the consumer.

While it is good to see many different types of energies being researched,each alternate energy source has its pros and cons.Hydrogen requires energy input just to produce free molecules of hydrogen;once the free hydrogen is produced,distributed , and stored the conversion process is still not over.Hydrogen fuel cells are designed that when hydrogen is combined with oxygen the result is electricity and water.The electricity is used to power the vehicle and water is the harmless by-product.There is a great loss in efficiency when hydrogen is undergoing all these conversion processes.The battery driven electric vehicle is one alternative that has a minimal conversion process.Batteries can be recharged anywhere and vehicles are often build with electrical regeneration technology.Electric vehicles can also minimize efficiency loss and save distribution since electricity is already a pre-existing infrastructure.

There are a many reasons why hydrogen vehicles look so appealing.The appeal is hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and it's a clean burning form of energy since the vehicles produce only water as its emission.However,to achieve a true clean vehicle the hydrogen must also be created by a clean form of electrolysis.

Mechanical Farming

The need for mechanical farming or farm mechanization came to be felt in the 20^th century .Previously,agricultural activities were mostly performed manually or with the help of cattle.As the years passed by ,the population increased tremendously and there was the corresponding rise in the demand for food.For an agricultural country like Pakistan or Australia,the export of grain and agricultural produce was necessary for earning for an exchange.The green revolution of modern the modern age,broad in by modern machinery,improve seeds and fertilizers ,and scientific water distribution caused agriculture to grow by leaps and bounds.The advanced countries like the US,Canada and France reaped full benefits of this revolution in agricultural because ,side by side,their industrial progress was taking them to new heights.

In our country,unlikely the ,the use of tractors,tube-well engines and other earth moving,seeds sowing and water machines caused a number of serious problems.First of all, with surplus and unemployed abour force in the villages,the use of machinery made so many more villagers idle.One tractor,for example,meant work done by fifty or more farmers or laborers.One thresher that separated grain from the plantsmeant work done by a hundred or more farmers or laborers.When so many laborers get idle,they generally move to the towns and cities in search of work.The cities cannot absorb all this surplus labor.

Greater and successful farming is possible in the true sense when there is industry producing farm machinery like tractors and harvesters on a massive scale and at cheap rates.When the components or parts of these machines are imported from abroad,the very purpose of mechanical farming is defeated.Our factories do not "produce" farm equipment,they only "assemble" it as they assemble cars.

Farm mechanization is truly beneficial when it makes possible multiple cropping or raising of more than one crop in a season.With the availability of mechanical sowing,reaping and watering instruments and fertilizers,it is possible to have two or more crops of certain vegetables and grains.Then mechanical farming makes possible crops rotation,that is, the use of fields one after another for certain crops.This keeps the fertility of the soil high and result sin greater productivity.

Mechanical farming,it introduced on a large scale, will reduce our dependence on animals for cultivation.The attention that we now give to animals on farms will be shifted to rearing animals and poultry for food.This will help us to have more milk and meat for the population and for export.

In this age of competition,we cannot resist the demand for wholesale mechanized farming.If we do not mechanize most or all of our farms,we shall be left far behind countries like Australia and New Zealand.

Natural Disasters

Natural disasters or catastrophes can be controlled up to a point, and most of us often fell helpless before them.A natural disaster is an unexpected event such as a violent storm,flood,earthquake,lightening,the attack of locusts(winged insects attacking fields in very large numbers) and the spread of diseases from birds or animals (bird flu, etc.). When lightening strikes a moving ship,plane,building,or a number of people anywhere,it is considered to be a natural disaster.

We witnessed natural disasters one after another in 2004 and 2005.There was a series of massive Asian tsunamis (attack of sea waves) in South-East Asia which were the result of earthquakes.They shook and moved islands,hit seacoasts and caused thousands of deaths and large-scale destruction.Then there were very heavy floods and rainfall in Balochistan that caused a large number of deaths and extensive damage to dams,roads, and fields.In line with these disasters was the earthquake of 2005 in our northern areas that caused uncountable deaths and large-scale destruction.Whole villages,towns and cities were wiped out and tens of thousands of people got killed or made homeless.The mighty storm that hit the US in 2005,name Katrina, was no less destructive.

Now the question arises:what can we do to protect ourselves from natural disasters of the above kind?Firstly,we should have advance warning systems for storms and floods.We can then make timely preparations to face them.Secondly,there is urgent need to start research on the changes under the surface of the earth for earthquake predictions or forecasts.

When forecasts for earthquakes or natural disasters are not possible,we should all the available resources to face them.The government and the people should join hands and make plans for immediate help to disaster-affected people.All countries of the world should get together to help the affected people and countries.The UN and other world agencies can arrange and supervise the rehabilitation work.This did happen in the case of the tsunamis,Katrina and our earthquake most prominently.

,p>The world should set up disaster information centers in each of the five continents.The advanced countries should offer knowledge and resources to these centers for forecasts of all kinds of natural disasters.They should have arrangements of money,food,clothing,house-killing, and vehicles for ready help.The countries themselves should have information and assistance centers in all their provinces.

The developing countries like ours should attend to the education of all the people o the most modern lines educated and trained people can better face natural disasters intelligently and successfully.

The Third World

The developing or under-developed countries of Asia,Africa and Latin make up the Third World.Most of them had been colonies of the advanced European countries before gaining their independence.The First World,understandably,is that of the developed countries now led by the US and the Second of the advanced countries formerly led by Communist Russia together with China.

The economic and social conditions of the Third World countries are far from satisfactory.The majority of the people are uneducated and backward.Different forms of special evils are widespread."Dust,dirt and poverty" are to be found all around (except of course in some modern or fashionable areas of these countries,mostly in the cities).

A poor developing country exports most of its raw materials to the advanced countries.It imports machinery and technology from them at high prices.It buys expensive weapons from them that become outdated quite soon.Except for some oil-exporting countries,almost all the developing states are economically ill or even on the economic deathbed.

In most of the developing countries,both agricultural and industry are in bad shape.Old methods of agriculture are in use.There is shortage of capital and trained manpower,as a result,industrial and agricultural development is slow.

Overpopulation and unemployment go hand in hand in a poor developing country.A great many educated and trained people leave the country for employment in a rich developing country or in a developed country, and there is a serious brain drain(movement of highly-skilled people to other countries for better earnings).

The political systems of most developing countries are either dictatorial or duplicates of some western democracies or have been replaced by semi-dictatorial systems.They need able,honest and patriotic civilian leaders to run political institutions and to make democracy a possibility.

The Big Powers find it easy to influence the political and economic policies of the developing states.They play one weak state against another for their purposes.

Modern,effective methods should replace the outdated methods of agriculture in these developing countries.Industrial development should be fast.National industries should use most of the raw materials produced within the country.

The people of the Third World should be educated on a vast scale.Higher and technical education should be given on modern lines.There should be social justice and equal opportunities for all.

The importance of scientific research

Research means systematic or careful search for facts of knowledge or new facts in a subject.Research may be done:(i)To increase our knowledge in a particular subject after having studied in its basic details.(ii)To discover new facts or invent something.Scientific research has these two aims in a very clear way.

Students of science start their research work after learning the basic details of their subjects.Thus,proper research work in the sciences is after B.Sc. or M.Sc.Students who are very devoted to scientific work should get busy with research.

Scientific research is the highest form of scientific study.In it a student or scholar of science concentrates on a definite field or branch of a subject.He may come to specialize in this subject during his research.

We should provide all kinds of research facilities to our science students and scholars.We should have a large number of laboratories with enough modern scientific apparatus or equipment for experimentation and research.

In fact,scientific research is the basis of all real scientific,industrial and agricultural progress.Science students reading new book on their subjects and performing experiments in definite fields of study work for scientific progress.

It has been possible to make peaceful uses of nuclear energy through scientific research.Scientists did a lot of research to know the ways of using atomic energy in atomic reactors to produce electricity,run ships on the sea,etc.However,at first nuclear energy was put to destructive use after a great deal of scientific research.

It will be to the benefit of the entire world if scientific research is pursued for peaceful,constructive purposes alone.

Iran as a Nuclear Power

A prosperous country,faced with powerful enemies,naturally tries to defend itself in the best ways.Now the best defense in the modern world is nuclear weapons.Iran has the money to start and kind of nuclear weapons program.What it does not have,unluckily,is the technical know-how and knowledge to do so readily.

Israel and the West do not want Iran to become a nuclear power.They do not want it to be in control of the oil routes,mainly in the Strait(narrow passage of water joining two larger bodies of water) of Hormuz and the Arabian Sea.

In 2005, the International Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC) found Iran to be using atomic energy for warlike purposes.In 2006,the UN Security Council asked Iran to suspend its nuclear preparations with sanctions in case of non-compliance.Iran did not comply.In fact,Iran's nuclear program,started in the Shah's time,came to a halt with the Iranian Revolution and the Iran-Iraq war(1978-1988). Iran renewed it efforts to develop nuclear energy after the war saying that it needed it to produce electricity.But the western powers argued that,with its huge oil and gas reserves and limitless income,it did not need atomic energy for power production.

Iran has finally told the western powers that it is its right to use nuclear energy as it likes though it is not engaged in making an atomic bomb.The fact is that Iran is trying to become powerful by producing and possessing nuclear weapons.Noe Iran is engaged in "uranium enrichment that can be used for both peaceful and military uses". Its use of "centrifuge enrichment technology" makes the detection of secret enrichment very difficult.Already it has prepared and tested long-distance missiles that can carry nuclear warheads.

It is true that,like India and Pakistan,Iran wants to prepare atomic bombs,which appears to be its right.But the fact also stands that once Iran or another underdeveloped country has prepared them,other countries will also do the same,and the danger of world destruction will get closer.The proper solution to this lies in the destruction of all atomic weapons under the UN and a universal agreement not to produce any,which Iran also has stressed.If Israel and the West attack Iran to destroy its nuclear installations,Russia and,possibly,China may intervene, and the war may escalate.Secondly,Iran will block the Persian Gulf, and with it the oil supplies to the West.The Middle East will be a major war theater with unending killing and destruction.The prices of oil will shoot up uncontrollably and commerce and development will be at a standstill.Yet,after the holocaust,Iran may at some time produce an atomic bomb.The solution to the problem,then,lies in negotiations in which Iran has the upper hand.

The wisest course that the West can adopt for a ready solution is to change its policies towards Israel in favor of the Islamic countries.It should help create the Palestinian state as the Arabs desire.Then in a broad-based conference,it can persuade Iran not to use atomic energy for warlike purposes.

Science and War

Scientists in the 20^th century perfected weapons of mass destruction.Now,in the twenty-first century,they are busy developing even more destructive weapons and ways of using them more devastatingly.It is all because of scientific research and progress that different countries have light and heavy weapons of war guaranteeing total destruction once they are put to use.

In face,ordinary materials used in war like gunpowder and poisonous gases are the result of scientific effort.Chinese scientists in olden times developed gunpowder.Shots of different kinds of guns were later developed by European scientists.They invented and developed ordinary guns at first, and then rifles,heavy guns,machine guns,etc.So,as time passed,scientists and technical experts went on making or developing new kinds of weapons of greater destructive power.

Now,in our age,we have weapons of war with destructive capacities beyond description.The most advanced countries possess weapons that can causes large-scale destruction of life and property never to be found in any history book.They possess weapons like heavy guns,poisonous bombs,atomic or nuclear bombs,missiles, and what not,that can carry these bombs to the most far-off places killing thousands in a few seconds.

Scientists and technical experts have put science to highly objectionable uses.They have developed weapons to be used on land,at sea and in the air.For example,they have developed tanks and armored cars and their weapons for use on land,huge warships and submarines with weapons to be used at sea and bombers and jet fighters for air warfare.Chemical warfare,nuclear bombing and missile attacks are inescapable if a mini or major world war starts.

Scientists have developed new weapons for a number of reasons.First of all,most scientists have been acting on the orders of the governments or rulers of their countries.They were in government service or took money or funds from the government.They had to use their scientific knowledge for the development of new weapons according to the wishes of their governments.Secondly,scientists,like other citizens,are patriots.Russian,American and Chinese scientists have invented new weapons mostly for patriotic reasons.Thirdly,some scientists want to become famous for their new inventions to be used in war.

Science should be used for purposes alone.All countries should agree riot to make use of the ability of their scientists for destructive purposes.

Nuclear Explosions by Pakistan

It was May 1998 that Pakistan exploded six atomic bombs in Balochistan to become the world's seventh nuclear power(after the US,UK,France,Russia,China and India). India was already a nuclear power after its first nuclear explosion in 1974.However,she conducted five atomic tests in early May 1998 in Rajasthan in order to become a "declared" nuclear power.Then started a series of threats and warnings that the Indian leaders hurled or directed towards Pakistan.It was demanded of Pakistan to withdraw from Azad Kashmir or face the march of the Indian army into it.Already the Indian army,air force planes,tanks and sophisticated weapons far outnumbered those in possession of Pakistan.Pakistan was not prepared to accept Indian dictation and domination.Therefore,she herself became a declared nuclear power.

The results of Pakistan's successful nuclear tests were highly favorable to her at least in the military and political fields.Firstly,the balance of power which was weighing heavily on India's side after here nuclear testing of early May was suitably corrected.After her own nuclear testing Pakistan could herself warn India of an atomic war and large-scale destruction in case she attacked Azad Kashmir or any part of Pakistan.Soon after Pakistan's testing and possible deployment of the nuclear weapons on here Ghauri missiles,the war fever of the Indians came down and their violent excitement evaporated.

Secondly,Pakistan emerged on the world map as the only Islamic nuclear power after her atomic tests.For all the Islamic countries it was a matter of pride.Pakistan's scientific and technological power was recognized by them all.

Thirdly,the Kashmir problem,which was rather being taken lightly by the world powers and the UN came into the limelight in world politics.The world came to understand that the atomic explosions by India and Pakistan were the directly connected with the-long standing Kashmir dispute.The US,UK and France,especially,felt the need of getting this dispute settled.

Now,other countries,especially the advanced ones,should understand Pakistan's compulsion to explode the bombs in May 1998.They should try directly to bring home to India that the settlement of the Kashmir dispute only can bring the nuclear race in this area to an end.

The Mass Media

Media=sing/pl. the main ways that large numbers of people receive information and entertainment.
The mass media sources of information and news such as newspapers,magazines,radio,television, and the Internet that reach and influence large numbers.

The mass media mean sources of information,news and entertainment which are newspapers,magazines,radio and television, and now the internet.These media provide information,news and entertainment to the masses(all kinds of common people). It means that they disseminate information and entertainment on a wide scale.They manipulate people,which is the subject of much research and discussion today.

Workers,professionals,educated rich people and all other-men,women and children everywhere-are within the range and influence of the mass media.And,conversely,all manner of knowledge is within the reach the mass media like hungry flocks approaching "pastures new."

Perhaps more than the print media,the audio-visual media are easily accessible for having effortless pleasures.The radio and television bring to everyone,whether literate or illiterate,the pleasure of music,songs,dances,drama,films and scenes of social and natural life.They open to us the doors of our own cultural life in all the provinces and in all parts of other countries.We are lost in the world of art and reality as we watch movies of love and art from different countries,most of them dubbed in English.With our understanding of this great language,we understand readily what is happening in China and Japan,Germany and Switzerland,America and Canada,Egypt and Nigeria,Australia and Philippines, and everywhere in every clime.We learned through the mass media what is happening in education,politics,industry,agriculture,trade,sports,war,the criminal sphere, and all other spheres under the sun.This is the international information and cultural revolution that has been brought about by the radio,television, and the Internet, and which is growing or expanding day after day.

The internet is the latest addition to the mass media.It is a network connecting millions of computer network sin the world.Through it we get connected to the official,educational,commercial,social,political and other fields of activity and thought the world.

However,newspapers,magazines,radio and TV,together with the Internet,can be made use of positively as well as negatively.They can develop our minds and character as well as distort them when they present to us scenes of corruption and evil doings.However,through their harmless entertainment they can keep us happy,satisfied and hopeful as well as well informed.Who would not like to work and struggle for high aims if he is inwardly satisfied and happy?

The mass media can make us wiser and more knowledgeable with the passage of time.As we gather knowledge through them in different fields,our point of view or attitude towards life or outlook on life becomes universal and we begin feeling that we are citizens of the world.

The World in the Next Century

The world is the next century will be much more advanced than ours.Machines will be more perfect,performing work many times more than our machines.As a result,the production of things of daily use like pens,watches,radios,TVs,computers,etc. will increase tremendously.People will be able to buy them at cheap rates.As machines will be more automatic and faster in operation,factory workers will work less and have more holidays and free time.More efficient machines will,at the same time,create problems of unemployment.

Farming will be almost completely mechanized in most countries.More efficient farm machines like tractors,threshers and harvesters and new machines not available now will be in common use.New kinds of fertilizers will make farms highly productive.There will be food surpluses in several parts of the world.There is also the possibility of developing foods in the form of pills.

In some countries,the cities and villages on the surface of the earth may not be enough for the increased populations.So engineers will make it possible to have underground cities.These cities get air from the earth's atmosphere or scientists will set up housing colonies on other planets like the moon,Mars,Venus or Jupiter.They will find ways of producing oxygen and food for human life to continue there.Then they will have the huge space stations with thousands of houses in each.These stations will hang in outer space or will be moving round the earth.

Traveling will be extremely fast and easy in the next century.Supersonic and double-decker aeroplanes will be in common use.It will be a matter of minutes to reach a place thousands of miles away.Railway trains may have speeds of hundreds pf miles per hour.Flying cars may also be in use for traveling over shorter distances.Nuclear powered ships at sea will be moving at much faster speeds.

It may be possible in the next century to use atomic and solar energy in place of oil,coal,gas etc.on a very large scale.Electricity for the use of the public or for industrial use will be produced at all places with atomic energy at extremely low costs.Airplanes,cars,railway trains and ships will be run on atomic energy.

New medicines to cure all kinds of dangerous diseases in a quick way may be invented.Some diseases like blood pressure and cancer which are a present quite incurable will be easily curable.This will bring down the death rate.Human beings will be able to live much longer.Then new kinds of surgical operation may make it possible to correct all kinds of defects of the body.

Computers will be in more common use doing much of the thinking and planning that businessmen,architects,engineers,doctors and technicians have to do.As "thinking machines," computers will be working in place of human brains in many ways.

Yes,all the above scientific progress is possible if all countries learn to live in peace.They should use science for peaceful purposes and for the progress of mankind.

Space Travel or Exploration

Space travel or journey to the moon is no more a dream.It is possible for man to travel into outer space in a spaceship over thousands of miles.It is now possible for him to travel to the moon.Space travel became possible when the Russians started sending artificial satellites into outer space in 1957.These satellites traveled around the earth hundreds of miles about it.Afterwards the Americans sent their satellites into outer space and reached the moon in 1969.

Spacemen or astronauts have to face difficulties and dangers.For example,they have to breathe oxygen as there is no air in outer space.They have to face the problem of weightlessness in space when they are out of the gravitational pull of the earth.They are trained well to face it.Extremely dangerous rays like "cosmic rays" and "solar rays" all the time attack the spaceship.

Spacemen go on talking to control stations on earth during space travel.Experts in these control stations advise the spacemen about their direction in space,speed of their ship, and so on.

Space travel is of great benefit.It has made visits to the moon possible.It may make it possible for man to travel to other planets like Mars.Spacemen collect a lot of useful information about space while traveling through it.They have special instruments on their spaceship to record facts about the different kinds of rays or radiations,electric charges,etc. present in space.These instruments also give useful information about the atmospheric pressure,pressure of the magnetic field of the earth when the spaceship is closer to the earth.They also tell about the presence of minerals and oil on the earth etc and in the sea.

Space travel should be for peaceful purposes alone.Spaceships or artificial satellites should never be equipped with weapons of war.All countries should work together in the field of space travel for the benefit of humankind.

Telecommunications

In the modern world the radio,TV,telephone and telegraph and communication satellites (telecommunications) are of the utmost importance.Without these,our present modes of living,our business and industrial activities and progress as a whole will be hard to maintain.

First of all,the radio and TV are essential to the communication of news,information and ideas from one place to another.All the political,economic and social developments around the world are easily conveyed to us through these media.Governments depend on the media to a great extent for the explanation and popularization of their internal and external policies.They try to influence and change public opinion in their countries and others.TV and radio play a vital role in the education and entertainment of the common people.

The use of communication satellites for connecting TV networks in one part of a country to those in other parts or for connecting one country to another is on the increase.We can now easily view on our TVs programs being telecast in far off countries or continents.The use of these satellites has made the speedy communication of news and information easy.Important events like test matches in one country can be viewed in another country without any loss of time.

We cannot do without the telephone in our private live and public life of business,industry,law,education and other spheres.Over the telephone we can talk to people far away from us any time we like.Business matters are discussed and decided on the telephone.Overseas telephone calls are common now.Direct dialing between cities and countries is much like local dialing.Three developments in telephone use are more meaningful.Firstly,for the quick communication of industrial,business or medical data to the computer the telephone is being used.The computer,located miles away,can readily calculate the results of the data and send them back.Secondly,picture phone calls let us hear the voice of the speaker as well as see him speaking.Thirdly,the use of the laser beam in the telephone means the use of light to communicate words or messages through it.Thus,light will is being used to convey pictures and messages.

Modern communications for rapid economic and cultural progress is inescapable.All new developments in telecommunications in the advanced countries are meant to be within our reach if we want to develop and progress in real terms.