The present perfect continuous tense

Positive

1. The present perfect continuous tense is used for action that started in the past and continued or is continuing now or has just ended.It admits of active voice only.The verb ending in "ing" is used after "has been,have been."
   

   Examples

   1.I have been struggling to rise (have been struggling and still struggle or have been struggling up to now.)
   2.Kanwal has been researching in the university since 2009.
   3.I have been helping my neighbors.Now I shall be helping my friends.
   4.We have been reading an English newspaper for two years.(...still read it or do not read it.)
2. "For" is used for duration and "since" for a point of time in the past.The present perfect tense is also used for for action started in the past that is still continuing or that has just ended.
   

   Examples

   5.My friends have been working in the factory for a long time.
   6.They have been lived in Germany for three years.
   (or)They have lived in Germany for three years.
   7.He has been studying French since February 13,2008.
3. Progressive or continuous forms of verbs are used to express an action that continuous for a period of time.So we do not use verbs in continuous form that cannot express action continuing for a period of time.For example,we cannot say "I have been seizing (making use of) a lot of chances in this city:""The war has been ceasing (stopping) in Kashmir."Other such verbs,phrases or idioms can be "get born," "pass away," "retire," "die," "respect," "die in harness (continue to work until one's death."
   

   Such verbs pertaining (related) to the senses:"smell," "notice," "appreciate;" pertaining to the feelings:"like," "dislike," "hate;" pertaining to thought: "excuse," "understand," "suppose" and pertaining to ownership or possession:"own," "possess," "dispossess."

Negative

1. In negative sentences,we use "not" between "has," "have," and "been."In questions,we use "has" before the subject."When," "where," "do," "why," etc. are used before "has," "have."
   

   Examples

   8.I have not been meeting those students.
   9.You have not been writing on this subject for two months.
   10.She has not been painting since nightfall.
   11.Have some officers of this organization not been planning for a year to go abroad for advanced studies?
   12.Why has she not been acting on our advice?
2. Present perfect is often used for verbs giving a negative meaning and for action that has not continued earlier.
   

   Examples

   13.They have not met me since the day before yesterday.
   14.Has she not written an essay for several days?
   15.We have not seen any TV play for the last seven months.
   16.Has Japan not provided extraordinary (unusual) economic aid to several Asian countries since 2006?
   17.The common people have not seen true rulers for long.
   18.We have not studied in any college for years.
   19.My friends have not gone to a hill station for two years.
   20.Why has she not written to us since the end of the last year?

The letters or the alphabet & the word

There are ,as you know,twenty-six letters in the English alphabet:a,b,c, to z are small letters and A,B,C to Z are capital letters.

Kinds of letters

The vowels are "a,e,i,o,u" and the consonants are all the other letters.The vowels can be sounded without the help of other letters."h","w",and "y" are semi-vowels as they produce vowel sounds partly,for example,"hour," in which h is silent.w and y are taken as vowels when they do not begin with a syllable.In "way" (pronounced wae),"y" gives a vowel sound,but "w" is a consonant.The consonants can be meaningfully sounded in combination with other letters.

The word

It is a group of letters or combination of sounds with some meaning.

• war-three letters +3 sounds

The word is the smallest unit of language that people can understand when they hear or read it.In English it is composed of one or more letters from a to z.

• a,one,play,building,Taj,government

Words make up a phrase,clause or sentence.

Word structure

1.The syllable
It is a word or part of a word that contains a single vowel sound.It can be uttered with a single stretch or voice such as can,sing,jump,(single-syllabled)."Cannot"(two-syllabled -can+not).
one-syllabled or mono-syllabled words:

• do,trick,step,gun,much,kick,stone,play,etc.

These have one-unit sounds.
Two-syllabled,three-syllabled words and words having more syllables than three may be noted from these examples:

• playing(play-ing,two-syllabled,Kashmir(Kash-mir,two-syllabled);
  condition(con-di-tion,three-syllabled);hopelessness(hope-less-ness,three-syllabled);engineering(en-gi-neer-ing,four-syllabled);dispassionate(dis-pa-ssion-ate,four-syllabled);particularly(par-ti-cu-lar-ly,five-syllabled);nationalization(na-tion-al-i-za-tion,six-syllabled).

For stressed and unstressed syllables of words,look up a standard dictionary.
2.The affix
It means here a letter or group of letters added to the beginning or end of a word to change its meaning or the way it is used.It is a prefix or a suffix.
3.The prefix
It means a letter or group of letters added to the front of a word to change its meaning.

• The prefix in "inexact" is "in.".In "re-employ,"the prefix is "re."In "pre-planned,"the prefix is "pre."
  In "incorrect,"the prefix is"in"."In"unchanged,"the prefix is "un.""In"disagree," the prefix is "dis."

4.The suffix
It means a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to make another word.

• "less"in careless,"ly" in slowly,"al" in additional,"free" in trouble-free."y" in dirty are suffixes.

In words we have to be careful about the way they are spelt,with or without prefixes and suffixes.
5.AccentIt is stress laid on a single syllable,as in "terror" the first syllable "ter" is stressed.
6.Emphasis
It is stress applied to a syllable,word or passage by the use of jestures(motions of body parts),italics or other signs,as in "it will horrify all of us"(all the sentence is emphasized),in "Whom can we trust?"('whom"is emphasized),in "wonder", the first syllable,"won" is emphasized or stressed.
7.Inflection(also inflexion)
It is change in the form of a word by adding affixes or by changing the form of a base,for example,sky-skies;marble-marbles;man-men;try-tries;drama-dramatic.There is a sound change in the pronunciation of the new words.Inflection makes clear the grammatical principles in terms of number,person,tense and mood.
8.Conjugate
It means giving the different forms of a verb as it changes according to number,person,tense,etc.

• I play,he plays,you play,etc.

The present continuous & perfect tense

The present continuous tense

1. It shows action that is continuing in the present from the past or was to continue from it.
   
   • He is running.
   For example
   
   1.The colleges are reopening in a week.
   (or)The colleges reopen in a week.
   2.Can you tell when our guests are arriving?
   
2. In active voice positive sentences,the first form of the verb takes "ing," and before it "is," "am," "are" are used.
   
   For example
   
   3.I am resting at the moment.
   4.Are the players doing their best?
   
3. In negative sentences,"not" is used between "is," "are," "am," and the main verb.In questions, "is," "are," "am" are placed before the subject.Other question words like "why," "when," "where," "how," etc. are used before "am," "are," "is."
   
   For example
   5.Is she not knitting the sweater?
   6.Are the tourists not going to climb up the mountain.
   7.Are we not (aren't we) practicing the new game well
   8.What gifts are you selecting?(any gifts out of many)
   9.Which of the letters are yours?
   
4. In passive voice sentences, "being" is used after "is," "are," "am," and the third verb form after them.
   
   For example
   
   10.They are being shown the old fort of the city.
   11.Is he (or she) being told about his (or her) true aims?
   
5. In passive voice sentences, "not" is used between "is," "am," "are," and "being."In questions, "is," "am," "are," are used before the subject.Other question words, "where," "when," "how," "why, etc" are used before "is," "am," "are."
   For example
   12.The candidates are not being asked to leave the hall.
   13.Why are we not being examined in this subject?
   14.Why are the politicians not being called to the Assembly?
6. Some verbs,not indicative of action,cannot be used in the continuous form (in any tense).
   
   • see(understand),feel,smell,believe,hope,appear,look,seem,hate,forget,know,like,honor,wish,possess,remain,require,belong to,consist of
     Exception.When any of these verbs indicates physical or mental action,it can be used in the continuous form.

   Correct	This place smells of mint. I have been smelling these flowers.(action)
   Incorrect	This house is consisting of six rooms. (No action)
   Correct	She seems to be very happy today.
   Incorrect	She is seeming to be busy.

The present perfect tense

1. It shows action that has been completely recently or is continuing.
   For example
   1.We have watched the movie.
   2I have played for two hours.(That is, I am still playing or am not playing)
   3.They said to us, "The trouble is over."
2. In negative sentences, "not" is used after "has," "have," and before the main verb.
   For example
   4.I have not tortured anyone in this department.
3. In questions, "has," "have" are used before the subject.The question words, "why," "where, "where," "how," etc. are used before "has," "have."
   For example
   5.Have I cleared the dues?
   6.Have they not (haven't they) qualified for these posts?
   7.Why has she denied your statement?
4. In passive voice, "has been" or "have been" are used after the object.In negative sentences, "not" is used between "has," "have," and "been."In questions, "why," "where," "how," etc. are used before "has," "have."
   For example
   8.We have been told the secret.
   (or)The secret has been told to us.
   9.You have not been asked to attend the class.
   10.Where has he learnt this skill?

The Present Indefinite Tense

The tense

The tense of a verb is the form which shows the time of an action:the present,the past or the future.

The present tense They reply to our letters.

The past tense They replied to our letters.

The future tense They will reply to our letters.

The present indefinite tense

1. The simple present tense or present indefinite tense shows constant practice,a universal truth or an expected action in the future.
   

   He goes on a walk in the afternoon every day. Barking dogs seldom bite. Those whom the gods love die young. We leave for Azad Kashmir the day after tomorrow.

2. With the first and second persons,in the present tense,the verb is used without "s" or "es."
   

   5.I often dream of my schooldays in solitude. 6.Jump high if ever you want to rise.

3. With the third person singular like "he," "she," "it," the verb in the present tense is used with "s" or "es."
   With the third person plural like "they,"A and B," "the people," the verb in the present tense is used without "s" or "es."
   

   7.She likes to stay at home on Sundays. 8.They deceive others whenever they get a chance. 9.The sweetest songs are those that tell of our saddest thoughts. 10.The people praise those who benefit them.

4. In negative sentences in the present tense in the first person (I,we),second person(you) and third person plural,that is, they,A and B do not (don't) is used.In the third person singular,does not (doesn't) is used.In the third person singular,does not (doesn't) is used.
   

   11.I (or we or they) do not (don't) drink coffee. 12.Ambreena (or she or he) does not (doesn't) like it.

5. In questions,"do," "does" are used before the subject.The other question words, "why," "how," "where," "when," etc. are used before "do,"does."The main verb used is without "s" or "es."
   

   13.Does Rex go there?Why does he go there? 14.Do you (or they) meet her?When do you meet her? 15.Really,our enemies do not know how to oppose us.

6. In passive voice,"am" is used with I,"are" with "we," "you" and "is" with "it," "she," "he."In passive voice,with "I," am is used.With "we," "are" and with "he," "she," "it," "is" used.And then in all situations the third form of the verb form is used.
   

   16.I am troubled for nothing here. 17.We are taught English before the break. 18.Is it not suited to your requirements? 19.Are the people here given chances to progress?

7. In negative question-tags, "aren't" is used with "I" when "am" occurs in the earlier affirmative clause.
   

   20.I am a doctor,aren't?(=I am a doctor,am I not?) 21.I am in a position to shake the government,aren't I?

8. Note the other passive voice sentences.
   

   22.I am always assisted by you in every possible way. 23.We are asked easy questions in this class. 24.We are sent to other countries for various purposes. 25.Aren't new government economic programs prepared by prejudiced minds? 26.Why aren't the unemployment problems solved by our society? 27.Why is the nation not told about the rotten political and economic systems? 28.Are false hopes not raised in us by our so-called leaders?

9. In passive voice negative sentences, "not" is used between "is," "am," "are" and the main verb.The question word occurs before the subject.Other question words like "where," "when," "how," "why" occur before "is," "am," "are."
   

   29.We are not given military training in this city. 30.Here Shabnam is not taken to task for her faults. 31.Are you not guided by your teachers? 32.Why are they taught not these subjects? 33.Where are those people asked to stay in the holidays?

Interrogative pronouns & adjectives
"Which" and "what " at the start of questions

1. In questions,"which" is used for things,persons,qualities, etc. that we already have in mind or which can be pointed to in a definite collection.
   

   34.Which of these politicians is the most notorious? 35.Which is beautiful as well as comfortable? 36.Can you tell me which scene here is the most enchanting?

2. In questions, "what" is used for selection from what is not known to us.
   

   37.What horses do you like to ride? 38.What are you going to do in Canada? 39.Can you tell what the Referendum had resulted in?

The Verb

Directions on the verb

1. The verb is the chief of the sentence that control sand governs it with the assistance of his ministers.These ministers are the noun,articles,pronoun,adjective,preposition,conjunction,adverb and interjection.The verb has to work in unison with them for a smooth rule and fluent administration.We need to make all these work in co-ordination for our success as writers.
2. A verb describes the action or condition of the subject (agent) or object of a sentence or clause.It tells about the subject or object.
3. A verb is an action word as much as it is descriptive of condition.
   
   • The people should elect suitable leaders for the assemblies.[elect-transitive verb]
     We had a horse race, and then we slept.[slept-intransitive verb]

Four kinds of verbs

1. Transitive verbs are verbs which require an object.
   
   • Active voice: The politicians damaged the country. [Transitive verb:damaged;object:the country.]
     Passive voice: The country was damaged by the politicians.
   • Active voice: The circumstances sank us into ignorance and poverty.
     Passive voice: We were sunk into ignorance and poverty by the circumstances.
2. Intransitive verbs are verbs which do not require an object.
   
   • They cried. (or) They cried when they heard the news.
   • She speaks attractively.They are loitering (standing purposelessly at street corners).
   • She is daydreaming.The crops are dying for want of water.
   • We sank into ignorance and poverty.
   Note. There are verbs that can be used in the transitive as well as in the intransitive form:
   • Intransitive: We play here.(without an object)
   • Transitive: We play hockey.(with an object)
   • Intransitive: We do not eat much.
   • Transitive: Do you like to eat roasted chicken?
3. Auxiliary or helping verbs (auxiliaries) are helping verbs that help the main verbs to complete their meaning or the sense of the sentence.
   
   • She has written a letter.["has" is helping "written," the main verb.]
     We have completed our journey.The work is being completed.
   • There are the modal auxiliaries or modals which are used with another main verb to express possibility,permission,duty,promise, etc,: can,could,may,might,ought to,shall,should,will,would,dare,need,used to.
   • Last year they could not marry,but now they can.
     He said that he might visit Kafiristan next month.
     We ought to walk and play every afternoon.
     They used to climb mountains,but now they sail over long distances.
   The common helping verbs are as follows:
   
   • be,am,is,are,was,were,been,has,have,had,does,do,did,can,could,should,will,would,might,may, etc.
   Helping verbs are in italics below:
   

   is working was going were coming

   will be leaving may replay should sit

   could think might have arrived may have returned

   does play must have applied do meet

   Note that many a helping verb can be used as a main verb.
   
   • I have eaten the fish (helping verb).I have the books I need.(have=possess,main verb)
     Rebbeca will join my class.(helping verb)She wills joining my class.(transitive verb)
   Modal auxiliaries are verbs that are used with other verbs to express possibility,permission,intention or necessity.
   
   • The modal auxiliaries are can,could,may,might,must,ought to,shall,should,will,should,dare, etc.
   They are used with other verbs thus:
   • You should go there.(obligation,duty)Can I play with them?(permission)We must take the exam(necessity).Alina may use my dictionary.(permission)We could study further,if we had a chance.(ability in unreal condition)
   • "s" cannot be added to these verbs in use.

   Modal auxiliaries You should visit Kaghan There he would play cricket

   Modal auxiliaries (substitute) You ought to visit Kaghan. There he used to play cricket.

4. Linking verbs are verbs which link or connect the subject with a noun or an adjective in the predicate that tells about the subject.A linking verb is a form of "be."
   Verbs that help to make statements by linking to words are called linking verbs.These verbs are intransitive (without objects).The linking verbs or state (condition)-of-being verbs are forms of the verb "be" as follows (any verb ending in "be" or been is a form of "be.")
   

   be being am is are were

   shall be will be has been have been had been will have been

   should be would be can be could be would have been could have been

   Some other commonly used linking verbs are:
   
   • appear,become,feel,grow,look,remain,seem,smell,sound,stay,taste,turn, etc.
     The dog is hungry.(Here "is" links the subject "dog" with the adjective "hungry.")

   How to identify a linking verb.

   (a)Put "is,are,was,were,will be" in place of the verbs used.If the sentences are still meaningful,it means that the verbs can be linking verbs.
   Further,see whether the verbs connect the noun or adjective in the predicate with the subject of the sentence.If they do this,they are surely linking verbs.Some linking verbs can be used as action verbs.
   

   Linking verbs 3.She looks sad. 4.The medicine tastes sweet.

   Action verbs Look at the tower. I only tasted the food.

   • George appears (seems) angry.You look a worried person.("appears" links George with "angry)
     The building became weak.("became" links "building" with "weak")
     The signal turned green.("turned" links "signal" with "green")
   (b)A verb expresses physical action,mental action or a condition.A verb that expresses a condition may be a linking verb.I links the subjects with a noun or an adjective in the predicate.
   Action and being verbs show
   (i)physical action,(ii)mental action,(iii)state of being(condition)
   A verb that expresses a state of being may be a linking verb.

Sentence

Four kinds of sentences
classified according to purpose

1. Statements-declarative sentences
Statements are descriptions of fact,affirmative or negative:
• They play here regularly.(Affirmative)They do not play here regularly.(Negative)
2. Orders or requests-imperative sentences
• Come and write the essay at once.Please park your car beside my motorcycle,not behind it.
3. Sentences showing strong feeling-exclamatory sentences
• Hoe strong the boxer is!How tragic has her life been!
• An optative sentence is an exclamatory sentence that expresses a wish.
• I wish I were a ruler.May you enjoy your life.
4. Questions-interrogative sentences
• Who is responsible for our loss?What are you doing these days?

Four types of sentences
classified according to structure

1. The simple sentence
It has one main idea.It has one clause.It has one subject and one predicate or only one finite verb.
• They work most of the time in this office.
  Do we need any more books for this assignment?
A finite(fii-niit')verb is limited by tense,number and person.
• She paints in oil upstairs.("paints" according to the third-person singular)
  They buy the choicest books.("buy" according to the third-person plural)
An infinite(in'fu-nit')verb is not limited by number and person subject(subject).
• It is easy to swim. (or) To swim is easy.I need not visit Canada.
• "Swim" and "visit" in these sentences are not limited by number and person(subject).
2. The compound sentence
It has two or more main ideas or two or more independent or main clauses:
• They played in the garden for hours, and then could not run.
  The two countries have lots of oil,but never is truly advanced.
(a)The independent or main clause It is complete in itself and can function as a complete or independent sentence.Two or more main clauses can be joined:
• She is studying _{main idea} while we are watching a movie. _{main idea}
  They may rise or they may fall.
(b)The dependent or subordinate clause It goes together with the main clause in a sentence.Its meaning is linked to the meaning of the main clause:
• They have written us a letter _{main idea} which we are reading. _{dependent)subordinate) clause}
3. The complex sentence
It has one main idea and one or more dependent ideas or it has one clause and one or more dependent clauses:
• My friend returned my loan
  _{main clause} what I had always expected. _{dependent clause}
  
  The swimmers swam to the island which they did not know about.
4. The mixed sentence or the compound-complex sentence
It is a mixture of compound and complex sentences-has two main ideas and one or more dependent ideas or two main clauses and one or more dependent clauses:
• The two sisters study together as their parents watch them _{main ideas} which is a happy situation. sub>dependent idea
  Our problems are complex as our life is _{main clause} what we do not like. _{dependent clause}
  We are most of the time planning wrongly _{main clause} that results in loss and disappointment. _{dependent clause}

Co-ordinate clause

It is a clause which can stand by itseld like an independent sentence.But it comes after the main clause in a compound sentence.It is equal in rank to the main clause.
• Prices are on the rise here _{main clause} while they are on the decline elsewhere. _{co-ordinate clause=main clause}

Kinds of phrase II

5.The participial phrase

A participial phrase is made up of the participle (verb and adjective combined) and words that modify (change) the participle or completes its meaning.(Both present participles and past past participles can be used in participial phrases.)

• Telling me about the price of the TV,the shopkeeper gave me the voucher (receipt).
  The students listened to the lecture prepared after great research.
  Delighted at the beauty of the song,we jumped in out seats.

Note on the present participle and past participle
(a)A present participle ending in "ing" is used with the verb "to be" to form continuous tenses such as playing-they are playing.The "ing" is also used an adjective:in the playing field.
(b)A past participle is verb that ends in "ed," "en," etc. and is used with the verb "have" to form perfect tense as "she has gone," "they have fallen."

6.The infinitive phrase

1. An infinitive phrase is made up of the infinitive (which often starts with "to" and functions as a noun,an adjective or an adverb),its complements (words which complete its meaning) and any modifiers (words that give additional information about it).
2. It can occur in the active voice without "to" when we use "bid,hear,make,need,dare,see,let,etc."

• He bid them write (told them to write) their homework.(modern tense forms:bid-bid-bid)
  Passive:They were bid to write their homework.(All active forms are not amenable to passive.)
  How did you dare come in?You need not worry.

7.The verb phrase

A verb phrase is one or more helping verbs and a main verb together.

• are sleeping,had met,will have left

A verb phrase is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verb (auxiliary) verbs coming before it.Helping verbs are all the forms of "be" like,is,has,had,will,shall,should,may,must,might,etc.

• will come,may go,are trying,is raining,were moving,will be attacking,have been sleeping,will have been done,etc.

8.The gerund phrase

1. The gerund is a verb form,which ends in -ing.It is verb and noun combined.
• playing,swimming,touring,thinking,laughing,eating,drinking,sweeping,writing
  Visiting new places is his hobby.I like composing new tunes.
  (A participle is part verb and part adjective,decorated house,educated person)
2. Further,gerunds,like nouns,are used as subjects,predicate nominatives or predicate adjectives,direct objects or objects of prepositions.
• Riding is enjoyable.(subject)
  Her job is cooking.(predicate nominative-qualifying the subject-subject complement)
  Sheila is fond of joking.(object to the preposition "of")
3. Gerunds work as nouns,so adjectives and adjective phrases can qualify (tell about) them.

• The spectators watched the strange jumping of the athletes.(adj. phrase)
  Of the best order was their singing.(adj. phrase)

Definition of the gerund phrase

A gerund phrase is made up of a gerund and its complements (a word or phrase that describes it) and modifiers (words which give extra information about it).
• A most horrible thundering,incomparable with any heard earlier,sent us into the cave.

Kinds of phrases I

Phrase
A phrase is a combination of words that makes some sense,but not complete sense.

• at the airport;in the hall,in the dead of night;at her beck and call;the whirlpool of circumstances.

Kinds of phrases with exercises

1. The noun phrase
A noun phrase is a group of words which does the work of a noun or pronoun. A simple test for locating a noun phrase is to place "it, "him" or other pronouns in place of the groups of words functioning like a phrase.
• They want to visit Europe.
• Here "to visit Europe" does the work of a noun or pronoun.We could have said: They want this or it...
Provide meaningful noun phrases:

Examples What they want is difficult to give them. They hope= They hope to visit America some day. ... is not known to them= What to do with their money is not known to them. Did they try?Did they try reading in the dark?

Exercise She likes ... Our friends say they play ... ... is all incorrect. The great powers want ... ...is not clear to us.

2. The adjective phrase
An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase that qualifies or tells about a noun or pronoun.(or) An adjective phrase is a group of words which does the work of an adjective.
• It is an important matter.(important-adj.)
• It is a matter of importance.(of importance-adj.phrase.)
  A foolish act-an act of foolishness.
  The highest building-the building of the greatest height.
Provide meaningful adjective phrases:

Examples The Chinese people are peace-loving= The people of China are peace-loving. Have you ever seen such a greedy animal?= Have you ever seen an animal of such greed? She heard a scholarly lecture. = She heard a lecture of great scholarship (learning). The lonely boy was crying. = The boy without any companion was crying. Had they replaced the illegible words? =Had they replaced the words that could not be read?

Exercise Wealthy people often do not take enough exercise. They have not seen all the Pakistani cities. Have you met the red-haired children? Do the people like the brave deeds of the soldiers? The beautiful dancer won the hearts of the spectators. We will face their inimical (unfriendly) plans and terrorist acts wisely and bravely. Note.We cannot replace all adjectives with adjective phrases.

3. The adverb phrase
A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb,an adjective or an adverb is an adverb phrase.An adverb phrase does the work of an adverb and tells how,when,where or to what extent.
• You did it well.(adv.)You did it in a good way.(adv. phrase)
  They went there.(adv.)They went to that place.(adv. phrase)
Provide meaningful adverb phrases:

Examples They played happily. = They played in happiness. She works carefully. = She works with care. The students arrived there in time. = The students arrived at the place in time. They played very cheerfully. = They played in all cheerfulness.

Exercise She went there ...(in a great hurry or by bus,etc.) Did they speak to you...? Never behave towards your elders... Do not cry... We did not play... The population of Pakistan is increasing...

4. The prepositional phrase
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun with another word.In,on,at,towards,under,over,beside are some of the most common prepositions.An object always follows a preposition.Note how different prepositions in the same sentence change its meaning. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.

It works as a noun It works as an adjective It works as an adverb

The pictures she wants are with the librarian.[with(prep.),the librarian(n.phr.)] The building of the college is quite beautiful. She spoke in a sweet voice.

Note the prepositional phrases in italics in the following sentences:
• She lives in a small room.The train was moving fast at that time.Please walk across the road.

Kinds of clauses

1. The noun clause
It is a group of words with a subject and a predicate which does the work of a noun or pronoun. But when it does not have a subject and a predicate it is a noun phrase:
• She decided to play badminton.(noun phrase)
  She decided (that) she would play badminton.(noun clause)
• Both the sentences could have been:She decided this.So the phrase or the clause replaces "this."
The noun clause can be used: i.As the object to a verb as in the last example.Further:
• They understand/verb (that) they have made mistakes/noun clause(object) ("That" may or may may not be used here.)
• They understand this or that or them.The clause "they have made mistakes" replaces the pronoun, and so functions as a noun clause.
• Who says I am a fool?
ii.As the subject to a verb:
• What he tells us now is importent.
iii.As the object to a preposition:
• Your books ae in the room where you were sitting.(object to "in")
  We have been saved by what he has done.(object to "by")
  On how she speaks in the interview depends her selection.(object to "on")
iv.Side by side with a noun when the noun clause is an explanation of the noun:
• Their idea that our business will fail is foolish.
  The story that tells of their travels through Africa has surprised us.
• "That" is used to connect the clause in italics with the noun before it.
v.As the complement to a verb.(See "complement" explained earlier):
• My idea was that she would not help me.They will be what they have never been.

Exercise

Pich out the noun clauses: The teacher can tell why you have failed. That the sun gives us the heat we need is a geographical fact. Very few people can study all that they desire to learn in their life. How acn you understand what we have written here? She rejected whatever I had suggested.

Provide noun clauses: She knows... Can you tell...? ... is true. Do not cry over... What you have told me is... Who can tell...?

2. The adjective clause
An adjective clause is a group of words,which has a subject a nd a predicate and which functions as an adjective.An adjective clause qualifies or tells about a noun or pronoun.It is generally introduced by relative pronouns- that,which,whom, etc.It should be placed close to the word or words it tells about. But when it does not have a subject and a predicate,it is an adjective phrase:
• The people arriving late at the meeting could not hear the speech.
• The adjective phrase "arriving late at the meeting" describes the noun "people"-it is a phrase without a subject and a predicate.
• The people,who arrived late at the meeting,could not hear the speech.
• The adjective clause "who arrived lat at the meeting" describes the noun "people"-it is a clause because it has the subject "who" and the predicate "arrived late at the meeting."
Other examples:
• I met a doctor with two clinics.(Adjective phrase)
  I met a doctor who had two clinics.(Adjective clause)
  They can tell about the time when the train departs.(Adjective clause)
  They can tell about the time of its departure.(Adjective phrase)

Exercise

Pick out the adjective clauses: The students who work hard succeed. The leaders who are liked by others should rule the country. Where is the shirt which I had bought last weak? Please give me the table that has ten drawers. The houses which are newly white-washed are all for sale.

Provide adjective clauses: That is the school... You should learn the subject... What is the difficulty...? The car.. has broken down. Where are the books...?

3. The adverb clause
It is a groups of words with a subject and a predicate which does the work for an adverb.Thus,it describes a verb,adjective or adverb in another clause.
• They play after finishing their work.
• Here adverb phrase, "after finishing their work" describes the main clause,"They play," "play" being a "verb."Clearly it does not have a subject and a predicate.
• They play after they finish their work.
• Here "after they finish their work" is an adverb clause, as it has a subject (they) and a clause (finished their work).It qualifies "the verb "play."
• He is hardworking,so he succeeds.
• Here "so he succeeds" is the adverb clause qualifying the adjective "hardworking."
• They work well when they get a lot of facilities.
• Adverb clause decribing the main clause with the adverb "well."
• When the people have more money,prices rise.
• Adverb clause, "prices rise," describing another clause.

Exercise

Pick out the adverb clauses: The students protested when the fines were announced. He will come if you call him. They have failed the exam because they did not work hard. We earn money so that we may live comfortably. The teachers teach well so long as the students obey them.

Provide adverb clauses: Play the game... They spoke so fast... If you read your lessons well,... People hate him... They never do...

Subjective & objective complements,Clause

Complement
A complement is a word or words that complete the meaning of the predicate.

• The teacher was happy.They were clever and corrupt politicians.The President made him governor.
• Here happy,clever and corrupt,politicians tell about politicians and governor are complements.
  The meaning of these sentences would be incomplete without the complements.Here happy describes "the teacher," the subject,clever and corrupt "they," and governor refers to "him," the object.

1. The subjective(subject) complement(completer)
(a)When the complement describes the subject,it is called a subjective complement.
• She was appointed ambassador.They look tired.These goods are on sale.
• ambassador,tired and on sale (subjective complements) refer to the subjects,she,they and these goods.
(b)In other words,a subjective complement is a word that is used after a linking verb.It describes the subject of a sentence. i.Subject complements follow the forms of the linking verb "be."
• We are worried.The word should be finished.
ii.Some other linking verbs that take subject complements are :
• appear,feel,seem,turn,taste,remain,look,smell,sound,stay.
2. The objective(object) complement(completer)
A transitive verb can be require a complement (together with the object).This is the objective complement which describes the object.
• They described the scenes as awful.
  She called her a thief.
  Rustam made him manager of the factory.
  Razia considers her fate rosy.
• The words in italics are objective complements in the above sentences."As awful," for example,a combination of preposition and adjective,is the complement to the object "scene."

Clause
A clause is a group of words which makes complete sense (that is,has a subject and a predicate) but is part of a larger sentence.(It may be a sentence within a sentence.)

• She stayed at home though she wanted to accompany us.
• Two clauses,"she stayed at home" and "she wanted to accompany us" are joined by "though," a conjunction.
• The students,who disobey their parents ,are unhappy in life.
• "who"-a pronoun-is the subject and "disobey their parents" is the predicate.So the clause is:>br>"who disobey their parents."The other clause in the same way can be:"The students (S.) are unhappy in life (P.)."
• They think that they will get over their difficulties soon.
• Only one clause:They (S.) will get over their difficulties soon (P.).

The Sentence Structure

The sentence defined
A sentence is a combination of words that makes complete sense.It contains the idea.

• The pilot flew the plane through the clouds successfully.
  Razia played but we studied.
  The students will come when you call them.
  The people obey an able leader,as the country progresses,which results into prosperity.

The subject & the predicate
The subject and the predicate make up the sentence.

1. The subject
The subject is the person or thing about which something is said.
2. The predicate
The predicate is the part of the sentence which tells something about the subject.

Subject Razia we The students you The people the country which

Predicate played(while) studied. will come(when) call them. obey an able leader(as) progresses results in prosperity.

Subject Some leaders that Everyone None of the students

Predicate play dirty tricks push the people in backwardness. should be able to study, work,earn and succeed. has a right because of the terrorist situation.

Active & passive voice
A verb is in the active voice when its subject acts-when the subject does something(to its object).
A verb in the passive voice when its subject is acted on.

• Active:Able leaders should guide the country well.
• Passive:The country should be guided well by able leaders.

Where "the country should be guided well" is predicate while "able leaders" is subject.
Linking &helping verb & complements

1. The linking verb
It connects a noun or pronoun with words that describe the noun or pronoun.
• This well is deep.Those students were scholars.
• The verb,is, links the adjective,deep to the noun,well.In the second sentence,the verb,were, links the descriptive noun,scholars,to the noun,students.
2. Auxiliary or helping verbs
A helping verb helps the main verb to complete its meaning.
• (a)He was ruling yesterday,today he is begging.(b)We shall be leaving for Kaghan in a day or two.
• In (a) "was" helps "ruling" and "is" helps "begging."In (b) "shall,be" help "leaving."
It may be noted that one or more helping verbs and the main verb together form a verb phrase. Here "was ruling,""is begging" and "shall be leaving" are verb phrases.
3. Verbs of incomplete predication and complements
(a)The sense is sometimes complete with a verb in a sentence.
• The children cried.(intransitive verb)He plays tennis.(transitive verb)
(b)There are verbs which require additional words to complete their meaning.These words are called complements or completers. (c)The verbs requiring complements are called verbs of incomplete predication.
• She gave them presents.They look happy.
• The transitive verb "gave" requires "presents," complement.The intransitive verb "look" requires "happy," complement.
• She is a teacher."Is" requires "a teacher," the complement.

The infinitive,the participle & the gerund,Cloze

The infinite,the participle & the gerund

1. The infinitive
It is not limited by person or number.It is not tied to subject as the finite verb is.It is a verb with "to" before it or not:
• She refused to answer my questions.The order was to be obeyed by all.(Passive)
2. The participle
It can be verb and adjective combined-present participle:
• Our friends came out of the dining hall eating the food.(Eating modifies the food.)
  Driving the vehicle,he listened to songs.(Driving modifies the vehicle.)
A participle can be a verb and adjective combined-past participle:
• The princess bought the trained dog.(trained modifies dog.)
3. The gerund
It is verb and noun combined.
• Teaching is enjoyable.She likes singing on wet summer mornings.
Note.The uses of gerunds and participles:

The gerund We are playing for our success. They work hard on cutting down trees. Flying is exciting.

The participle Praying for our success,we lay down. Cutting down trees,they work hard. To fly is exciting.

Cloze

Background & explanation

1. "Cloze" was a term introduced by W.Taylor in US in 1953 to measure how far(how much) given texts could be understood or read by readers by asking them to fill in the blank spaces (in the texts).
2. The cloze test is designed to assess feeling for the language and knowledge of detail.It is based on the idea of closure that human minds like to complete the incomplete according to the complete form in their minds given by
   (a)Their experience in society.
   (b)Their experience of watching,hearing and reading, and
   (c)Their experience of the working of the imagination.
3. The first sentence of the passage is usually given as a basis or background for the coming sentences,and the last sentence may or may not be given.We are then required to read the passage thoroughly to fill in the blanks or missing words according to our previous understanding of the text from where the passage has been taken or our present understanding of it and our ability to reconstruct it.
4. In regular cloze passages,every fourth,fifth or sixth or seventh or any number of word is deleted (taken out) regularly from the given text.The students are asked to provide this missing word.
5. But,sometimes words can be deleted without regard to number(that is,any words may be deleted irregularly).
6. All the forms of cloze tests should be clearly understood as explained later with illustrations.

The title.The title for a cloze passage,which may be suggested,if not already given,can help in a quicker understanding of the connected sentences.
Contractions
Note that I'm (for I am),we're(for we are),you're(for you are),he's(for he is),they're(for they are),don't(for do not),isn't(for is not),won't(for will not),wasn't(for was not),weren't(for were not),shan't(for shall not),wouldn't(for would not),shouldn't(for should not),oughtn't(for ought not),etc. are taken as one word each.
Cloze procedures
The missing words from the given sentences or passages can be provided in one of the two ways:

1. The exact words of the next text from which these sentences or passages are taken may be required(for the blanks).
2. Any words that can be used meaningfully and suitably may be put in the blanks.

One blank will ordinarily admit of one word,however it can admit of more than one word or a word group.The word or words that are put in the blank

1. must give the correct meaning in the given situation or context (must be semantically,from the point of view of meaning,correct);
2. must be grammatically correct,that is,must be used correctly as a part of speech...noun,pronoun,verb,etc., must be syntactically,from the point of view of grammar,correct;
3. must have the correct spelling.

Case & Mood

Case-the way a word changes in relation to other words
"Case" shows the relationship of a noun,an adjective or a pronoun to another word.

Four kinds of case

1. Nominative case

In the nominative case,a noun or pronoun is used as the subject of a verb:
• She cooked the food well.(Who cooked it?)
  She met the guests,not the neighbor.(Whom did she met?)

2. Objective (or accusative) case

In it,the noun or pronoun is used as the object of a verb:
• Parvana is drawing a picture.(picture-the object)
  We are standing on sand.(sand-object to "on")

3. Possessive (or genitive) case

In the possessive case,someone's owbership,possession or responsibility is shown:
• We are depending on the leader's policy.
• The ruler's palace,Akbar's rule,America's decisions.

4. Dative case

In the dative case,the indirect object is used:
• She sent me a present.(She sent a present to me.direct object-a present;me-indirect object)
  The vice-chancellor handed the students the degrees.
• (The vice-chancellor handed the degrees to the students.direct object-the degrees;indirect object-the students)
The nominative,the accusative and the genitive are the only cases that are used extensively.

Mood
It shows a writer's attitude towards his use of the verb.It is the condition of the mind which the verb represents.
Kinds of mood

1. Indicative mood
It is used to make a statement or ask a question. (a)The river sang its water music as I stood by its bank. (b)The moon is behind the white,golden and crimson clouds. (c)What are the worries that are troubling you?My worries are over.
2. Imperative mood
It is used to make orders (commands) or requests.Whenever one is asked to do something,the verb is in the imperative mood. (a)Go and bring your mother from the airport. (b)Kindly help me in this difficulty. (c)Return to me soon after the exam.
• (a) and (b) are orders (in the Second Person).(c) is request.
3. Subjunctive mood
It is used to express a wish or make statements which are imaginary or against fact. (a)We wish we were the rulers. (b)If it had rained,the fruits would have been riper. (c)In case she loses the case in court,she will lose her property. (d)Till you come,we shall stay here. (e)We desire that he be punished.
• (a) is descriptive of a condition against the fact.(b) also expresses a condition in the past.(c) gives the condition regarding the future, and so (d) does.(e) "be" is used for action to be taken in the future.

The conjunction

A conjunction is a joining word -it joins words or phrases or clauses(sentences) together.

• Sabrina nad Zarina and Zeba went for a walk.
  Awake,arise or forever be fallen.
  All may oppose me,yet I will fight.
  Our oldest friend is present as well as others.The questions were difficult as well as long.
  We were not punished, but also fined.
  She is silent while you are talking.Either sleep or walk.
• All the words above in italics are conjunctions(for example,and,yet,as well as,etc.)

Kinds of conjunctions

1. Co-ordinating conjunctions
(a)These connect two or more nouns.pronouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs or prepositions.They are: and,but,for,nor,yet. (b)These connect two or more independent clauses or sentence parts.
• Rashid and Arshad are friends now,but they were not last year.
• and connects the two nouns or subjects,Rashid,Arshad.But connects the first clause with the second clause "they were not last year."
• They travel to Gujranwala, and then to Gujrat.
• The two prepositional phrases to Gujranwala,to Gujrat,are connected by the co-ordinating conjunction "and."
2. Correlative conjunctions
These functions as a set.They are like co-ordinating conjunctions as they connect words in the same situation in a sentence.They are: (i) either... or, (ii) neither... nor (iii) both... and, (iv) whether... or, (v) not only..., but(also).
• They would like to stay either with Shahid or with Hameed.
• either connects Shahid and Hameed.
• Rabia not only helps me with my homework, but(also) plays tennis with me.
• not only,but(also) connects to the two clauses.
3. Subordinating conjunctions
They connect subordinate clauses to independent clauses.(Subordinate clauses cannot stand by themselves,but independent clauses can function independently.)
• The teacher taught well because he knew the subject.
• because connects the subordinate clause "he knew the subject" with the independent clause "The teacher taught well."
• Our teacher is in control of the national situation though he gets other parties' help.
• though joins the independent or main clause "Our leader is in control of the national situation" with the subordinate clause "though he gets other parties' help.""Though" is the subordinating conjunction.

The following is a list of some commonly used subordinating conjunctions:

time after,while as long as as soon as before,since until,when whenever,as

place where, wherever

manner as,as if,as though

cause because,in that

condition although,if as long as even if,while even though provided that though,unless

comparison as,than

purpose in order that, so that,that

These can work as conjunctions or prepositions.A subordinating conjunction goes together with a word group having a verb.A preposition works with a word group without a verb.

• Subordinating conjunction.We watch TV after the sun sets.
  Preposition.We watch TV after sunset.

1.Uses of "some" and "any"
Some is used in affirmative sentences and any in negative and interrogative thus:

• She has some books.I don't have any(books).
  Do you have any sugar?No I haven't any.
  I didn't see any there.We should go somewhere now.
• When we use "some,""somewhere," etc. in questions,the answer is expected to be in the affirmative.(That is,we use "some""someone," etc. in questions when the answer may not be given,but may be understood to be affirmative.)
• Have you some good books to read? [Yes,I have some.]
  Are you going somewhere? [Yes,I am.]

The preposition

Such words as in,on,at,under,over,to,behind,etc., are prepositions.A preposition is a word that shows in what relation one thing,person,etc. stands to another:

• The mango is on the table.The mango is under the table.
• The words on and under show in what relation "mango" and "table" stand to each other.(table is object to mango")

Some selected prepositions

1. at
At is used in these ways: (a)To show nearness in place,used for smaller places:
• She is at home.They are quite at home in nuclear physics.
  Our friend is staying at Saddar in Karachi.Is he at the station?At the riverside.
(b)With respect to time:
• They came here at 9 a.m.At what time did the plane take off?
  Did she call (telephone) you at night?
(c)With respect to one's condition,etc:
• They were quite at ease (in comfort) in their village.
  He is nearly always at play.He is at work now.She came at last.She replied at once.
  At whose words did you go there?
(d)With respect to value:
• Pure milk is selling at a high price.
(e)With respect to aim:
• She laughs at me for nothing.
  He aims at becoming a doctor.
(f)With respect to passion:
• They were astonished (or surprised) at our attitude.
(g)With respect to action:
• They pointed at me at the meeting.When did they arrive at the college?
  Do not throw water at him.
  She avoids hitting hard at her opponents in her talks with them.
  We stopped at a hotel on the way.
2. in,into
"In" is used in reference to a big place,duration of time,condition, etc.It also means "inside."On time= at the right or exact time.
• She lives in Lahore.Which of your friends are staying at New York in America?(New York being much smaller than America)
  Our teacher was in anger at that time.
  She spoke in great joy.
  Do not talk in a passion of hatred for others.
  I shall come back two days.(that is,within two days)
  Ahsan is standing in the street.
  In the room,In the building.In the village.In the book,etc.
Into is used with reference to entrance or motion,etc.
• It will fall into the well.
  She went into the house when it is started raining.
  Change this water into ice.
  
• 
  
But also note these sentences:
• Let the soldiers fall in (form their lines). When they announced her name,she walked in.(that is,without any noun after "in.")
3. about
It is about (nearly) time we started for the station.
• He is about (soon going) to leave.
  There was none about (near) me to help when I fell down.
  It is about 8 p.m. now.
  Who will tell us about his plan?
4. along(from one end of the road, etc. to the other)
• The bus moved along the canal.We walked along the road.
5. amid or amidst(in the middle)
• Zarina was sitting amid(or amidst) her classmates.
6. among or amongst(in the middle of more than two)
• Who is your neighbor among these people?
• "Between" is used for two to show sharing,thus:
• Divide this money between the two boys.
Note.Divide the money among the five boys-Between also shows connection-two or more than two:
• They had four rooms between them.There wasn't any fighting between the demonstrators.
7. below,beneath
• I got below(less than) 80% marks (points) in this subject.
  Water was flowing beneath (under) the bridge.
8. 
   beside(by the side of),besides(in addition to)
• Nighat was sitting beside Sabiha.
  Besides visiting Shangrilla,we visited several other holiday spots.
9. by(near,up to)
• She passed by me on the road.
  I shall wait for you by 8 p.m.
10. in spite of,despite(with all this before one)
• They went into the jungle in spite of (or despite) my warning.
  Despite(in spite of) the war the country progressed a great deal.
11. within
• Please return this loan within the agreed period of time.
  It is not within my reach.(that is,not within my power)
  Always act within the limits of the law.
12. without
• My friend kept sitting without(outside) the examination hall.
13. across
• We went across the river.
  I want to put across (explain well) my ideas to you.
14. through
• Only through hard work can we all succeed.
  Great men have always been through great difficulties.

Prepositions & adverbs

A word is a preposition when it is related to a noun or a pronoun.A word is an adverb when it is generally tells about an adjective,verb or adverb.An adverb particle is directly connected to the verb to become a verbal idiom or phrasal verb like wake up,turn down,get over, etc.

Preposition The tools are in the box. The fan is over heads. Our house is behind the tree.

Adverbs Do not go in without permission. He jumped over the wall. Don't look behind,walk straight ahead.